Understanding Social Structure

Theoretical Approaches

  • Microsociology vs. macrosociology
    • microsociology = focuses on individual face-to-face, everyday social interactions
    • macrosociology = focuses on populations, social systems and structure
  • Functionalism = study of structure and function of society
  • Conflict theory = Marxist theory = groups/classes within society have differing amounts power and wealth. The upper class use their power to exploit the lower class.
  • Symbolic interactionism = interacting via symbols. Eg: the cross symbolizes Christianity, thumbs up symbolizes approval. Symbols can vary between cultures. Eg: the two finger peace sign is offensive in England.
  • Social constructionism = social constructs. Eg: money (it's just paper, but society made it worth more than paper).
  • Exchange-rational choice
    • exchange theory: relationships form from exchange/negotiation of goods/services
    • rational choice theory: people make everyday decisions based on rational choice (weighing the costs, benefits, probabilities)
  • Feminist theory: study of women (objectification, stereotyping, gender roles, experience, politics) in order to understand why there is gender inequality.

Social Institutions

  • Education
    • Hidden curriculum: what schools teach kids by accident. Eg: a rich-kids only school teaches kids the expectations and priviledges of being upper class.
    • Teacher expectancy: a teacher's expectancy of a kid influences how that kid will perform. Eg: a teacher expects less from a minority student, lowers the bar for the kid, subsequently the kid did not develop his full potential.
    • Educational segregation and stratification: poor areas have poor schools which have lower quality education
  • Family: reproduce, socialize
    • Forms of kinship
      • Primary kins = next to each other on a pedigree = husband-wife, parent-child, siblings
      • Secondary kins = separated by one kin on a pedigree = your parent's parent (grandparents), your parent's sibling (aunts/uncles)
      • Tertiary kins = separated by two kins on a pedigree = your parent's sibling's children (cousins)
    • Diversity in family forms: eg. Single parents, homosexual parents, step parents, grandparents, etc.
    • Marriage and divorce: marriage from a healthcare/legal standpoint makes your spouse your next-of-kin. If anything happens to you and you can no longer make decisions, your spouse have the legal authority to do so on your behalf.
    • Violence in the family (e.g., child abuse, elder abuse, spousal abuse): abuse can occur to anyone, any age, any gender, and can be both physical and emotional
  • Religion: meaning of life/death, spirituality
    • Religiosity = religiousness = how religious you are
    • Types of religious organizations (e.g., churches, sects, cults)
      • Church = stabilizing, in alignment with government, mainstream religious teaching
      • Sect = splits off from the church to promote a more traditional/orthodox version of the religion
      • Cult = splits off from the church to promote a novel version of the religion. Usually led be charismatic leaders.
    • Religion and social change (e.g., modernization, secularization, fundamentalism)
      • modernization: adoption of technology by society. Causes secularization.
      • secularization: religion loses influence on people
      • fundamentalism: strict literal interpretation of the scriptures. Eg: the world was created in 7 days.
  • Government and economy: social order
    • Power and authority
    • Comparative economic and political systems
      • Capitalism: private, profit-orientated
      • Socialism: state-owned, distribution of resources
      • Mixed-economy: mixture of capitalism and socialism
    • Division of labor: Construction workers do nothing but build houses. Doctors do nothing but treat patients. You are able to live in a house despite the fact that you know nothing about construction. Division of laber makes people specialized in their trade, they become really good and efficient at it, which would not be possible if they are required to know everything from every trade.
  • Health and medicine: treats the sick
    • Medicalization: human conditions becoming disease entities that are then studied and treated under medicine
    • The sick role
      • Rights: it's not your fault that you're sick, and while you're sick, you're exempt from work (your normal social role)
      • Obligations: You should try to get well. You should see a doctor and cooperate/comply
      • Issues with the sick role: pushing a sick role on someone who doesn't think so (homosexuality used to be considered a disease entity. Some patients wants to avoid the sick role due to stigmatization/HIV or because they want to continue to work). Sometimes we blame people it's their fault for being sick (obesity and lifestyle).
    • Delivery of health care
      • primary care doctor (firstline) -> specialist referal
      • medical staff: doctors (diagnose, treat/prescribe), nurses (administer, bedside monitor), EMS (stabilizing the patient long enough to reach the hospital)
    • Illness experience: experiencing symptom -> assuming sick role -> seeking care -> establish doctor-patient relationship -> recovery
    • Social epidemiology
      • epidemiology = public health = incidence, demographics, and control of disease
      • social epidemiology = how society affects health. Eg: poor socioeconomic status is associated with poor healthcare.

Culture

  • Elements of culture (e.g., beliefs, language, rituals, symbols, values): these elements make up culture, which is passed down to the next generation.
  • Material vs. symbolic culture
    • material = technology, clothing, architecture, etc
    • symbolic = language, beliefs, etc
  • Culture lag: material culture (technology) changes faster than symbolic (beliefs, values). Eg: we can clone humans, but we feel it’s unethical to do so.
  • Culture shock = going to a different culture and be shocked at the differences
  • Assimilation = integrating into a different culture.
  • Multiculturalism = melting pot, like New york
  • Subcultures and countercultures
    • subculture = a culture within the predominant culture. Eg: wearing Hijab in America.
    • counterculture = a subculture that is radically different / opposes the mainstream culture. Eg: the hippie generation.
  • Mass media and popular culture
    • mass media = media that targets the masses. Often exaggerated and modified for effect. Has a heavy influence on pop culture.
    • popular culture = pop culture = mainstream culture
  • Evolution and human culture
    • culture as product of evolution: people with culture have stronger attachments and communicate better, thus more fit.
    • culture as driver of evolution: modern technology means we’re no longer subject to the same selection pressures as animals. Eg: we have less body hair, we have smaller jaws, smaller muscle mass than our ancesters.
    • culture evolves over time
  • Transmission and diffusion
    • transmission = vertical = passing culture down from generation to generation
    • diffusion = horizontal = spreading culture to other places. Eg: westernization of the world.